Combining the latest thinking in the field with practical, step-by-step guidance, the Third Edition of John W. Creswell and Vicki L. The authors walk readers through the entire research process and present updated.
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Research: Planning, Conducting, and provides concrete examples of his approach using sample data of! He has authored numerous articles and 30 books on mixed methods research, qualitative research, and research design. The new one is even better. Creswell enables readers to compare three approaches to research—qualitative, quantitative, and mixed. Education 9 hours ago John W. Creswell was previously a professor in educational psychology in the University of Nebraska—Lincoln.
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Marcia - Identity and Psychosocial Development in Adulthood. Ioana Ungurianu. Dwiputra Setiabudhi. Joylene Faith Mina. Ernesto Cortes. Nazeer Ghazali Gade. Dana Isabelle. Consider the following: 1. You might also look for summaries of the literature on your topic presented in journal articles or abstract series e. Next, turn to journal articles in respected national journals—especially those that report research studies.
By research, I mean that the author or authors pose a question or hypothesis, collect data, and try to answer the question or hypothesis. There are journals widely read in your field, and typically they are publications with a high-quality editorial board consisting of individuals from around the United States or abroad.
By turning to the first few pages, you can determine if an editorial board is listed and whether it is made up of individuals from around the country or world. Start with the most recent issues of the journals, and look for studies about your topic and then work backward in time.
Follow up on references at the end of the articles for more sources to examine. Turn to books related to the topic. Begin with research monographs that summarize the scholarly literature. Then consider entire books on a single topic by a single author or group of authors or books that contain chapters written by different authors.
Follow this search by looking for recent conference papers. Look for major national conferences and the papers delivered at them. Often, conference papers report the latest research developments. Most major conferences either require or request that authors submit their papers for inclusion in computerized indices. Make contact with authors of pertinent studies. Seek them out at conferences.
Write or phone them, asking if they know of studies related to your area of interest and inquire also if they have an instrument that might be used or modified for use in your study.
If time permits, scan the entries in Dissertation Abstracts University Microfilms, —. Dissertations vary immensely in quality, and one needs to be selective in choosing those to review. A search of the Abstracts might result in one or two relevant dissertations, and you can request copies of them through interlibrary loans or through the University of Michigan Microfilm Library. The web also provides helpful materials for a literature review. The easy access and ability to capture entire articles makes this source of material attractive.
However, screen these articles carefully for quality and be cautious about whether they represent rigorous, thoughtful, and systematic research suitable for use in a literature review. Online journals, on the other hand, often include articles that have undergone rigorous reviews by editorial boards. You might check to see if the journal has a refereed editorial board that reviews manuscripts and has published standards for accepting manuscripts in an editorial statement.
In summary, I place refereed journal articles high on the list because they are the easiest to locate and duplicate. They also report research about a topic. Dissertations are listed lower in priority because they vary considerably in quality and are the most difficult reading material to locate and reproduce. Caution should be used in choosing journal articles on the web unless they are part of refereed online journals. As mentioned earlier, this organization enables a person to understand how the proposed study adds to, extends, or replicates research already completed.
A useful approach for this step is to design a literature map. This is an idea that I came up with several years ago, and it has been a useful tool for students to use when organizing their review of the literature for making presentations to graduate committees, summarizing the literature for a scholarly presentation, or composing an article for journal publication. This map is a visual summary of the research that has been conducted by others, and it is typically represented in a figure.
Maps are organized in different ways. One could be a hierarchical structure with a top-down presentation of the literature, ending at the bottom with the proposed study. Another might be similar to a flowchart in which the reader understands the literature as unfolding from left to right with the farthest right-hand section advancing a proposed study. A third model might be a series of circles; each circle represents a body of literature and the intersection of the circles as the place in which the future research is indicated.
I have seen examples of all of these possibilities and found them all effective. The central idea is that the researcher begins to build a visual picture of existing research about a topic. This literature map presents an overview of existing literature. Figure 2. For another map, the researcher may have more or fewer than three major categories, depending on the extent and publications on the topic. It is useful to use references that are current and illustrative of the topic of the box and to briefly state the references in an appropriate style, such as APA APA, In other words, major topics lead to subtopics and then to sub-subtopics.
This development depends on the amount of literature available and the depth of the exploration of the literature by the researcher. She proposed this study based on ideas written by other authors in the future research sections of their studies. Composing a literature map can be challenging. Individuals seeing this map may not be familiar with this approach to organizing the literature and making a case for your study. They need to be told the intent of such a map. It takes time to develop such a map and locate literature to put into the map.
For a preliminary map, I consider collecting maybe 25 studies. For a full literature map for a dissertation or thesis, I would consider developing a map with at least studies. Figuring out how your study adds to the literature takes some time.
It may add to several threads in your literature map. I would refrain from tying it to all of your subdivisions; select one or two subdivisions. It is also challenging to figure out what the broad topic might be for the top of the map. This is the topic to which your literature map adds. Ask others who know about your literature, see how the research studies group according to some synthesis of the literature, and continually ask yourself what body of literature your study will contribute to.
You may also have to develop several versions of your map before it comes together. Develop your map, write the discussion, and check it out with others. Abstracting Studies When researchers write reviews of the literature for proposed studies, they locate articles and develop brief abstracts of the articles that comprise the review.
An abstract is a brief review of the literature typically a short paragraph that summarizes major elements to enable a reader to understand the basic features of the article.
In developing an abstract, researchers need to consider what material to extract and summarize. This is important information when reviewing perhaps dozens, if not hundreds, of studies. Information about the sample, population, or subjects is found midway through in a method or procedure section, and the results are often reported toward the end. In the results sections, look for passages in which the researchers report information to answer or address each research question or hypothesis.
For book-length research studies, look for the same points. Consider the following example: Example 2. In this passage, I have chosen key components to be abstracted. Eighty department chairpersons located in four state colleges and one university of a midwestern state participated in the study.
Results showed that chairpersons in different academic areas differed in terms of their professional development needs. Based on the findings, the authors recommended that those who develop inservice programs needed to consider differences among disciplines when they plan for programs. Next, we reviewed the central purpose of the study, followed by information about the data collection.
The abstract ended by stating the major results and presenting the practical implications of these results. How are essays, opinions, typologies, and syntheses of past research abstracted, since these are not research studies? Consider the following example that illustrates the inclusion of these aspects: Example 2. They advocate a process that they call environmental analysis, which allows the organization to strategically determine the best responses to change occurring in the environment.
However, after examining the multiple techniques used for environmental analysis, it appears that no comprehensive conceptual scheme or computer model has been developed to provide a complete analysis of environmental issues Ginter et al. The result is an essential part of strategic change that relies heavily on a non-quantifiable and judgmental process of evaluation. To assist the hospital manager to carefully assess the external environment, Ginter et al.
Style Manuals In both examples, I have introduced the idea of using appropriate APA style for referencing the article at the beginning of the abstract. Style manuals provide guidelines for creating a scholarly style of a manuscript, such as a consistent format for citing references, creating headings, presenting tables and figures, and using nondiscriminatory language. A basic tenet in reviewing the literature is to use an appropriate and consistent reference style throughout.
When identifying a useful document, make a complete reference to the source using an appropriate style. For dissertation proposals, graduate students should seek guidance from faculty, dissertation committee members, or department or college officials about the appropriate style manual to use for citing references. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association APA, is the most popular style manual used in the fields of education and psychology. Some journals have developed their own variations of the popular styles.
I recommend identifying a style that is acceptable for your writing audiences and adopting it early in the planning process. The most important style considerations involve in-text, end-of-text, heading, and figures and tables use. First, note how many levels of headings you will have in your research study. Then, refer to the style manual for the appropriate format for each. Typically, research proposals contains between two and four levels of headings. Footnotes are used less frequently in scholarly papers today than a few years ago.
If you include them, note whether they go at the bottom of the page, the end of each chapter, or at the end of the paper. Note such aspects as bold lines, titles, and spacing in the examples given. In summary, the most important aspect of using a style manual is to be consistent in the approach throughout the manuscript. The Definition of Terms Another topic related to reviewing the literature is the identification and definition of terms that readers will need in order to understand a proposed research project.
A definition of terms section may be found separate from the literature review, included as part of the literature review, or placed in different sections of a proposal. Clearly, whether a term should be defined is a matter of judgment, but define a term if there is any likelihood that readers will not know its meaning.
Also, define terms when they first appear so that a reader does not read ahead in the proposal operating with one set of definitions only to find out later that the author is using a different set. Defining terms also adds precision to a scientific study, as Firestone stated this: The words of everyday language are rich in multiple meanings.
Like other symbols, their power comes from the combination of meaning in a specific setting. In dissertations and thesis proposals, terms are typically defined in a special section of the study. The rationale is that in formal research, students must be precise in how they use language and terms. The need to ground thoughts in authoritative definitions constitutes good science.
Instead, themes or perspectives or dimensions may emerge through the data analysis. In the procedure section, authors define these terms in the procedure section as they surface during the process of research. For this reason, qualitative proposals often do not include separate sections for a definition of terms.
Instead, writers pose tentative, qualitative definitions before entry into the field. Investigators place them in separate sections and precisely define them.
The researchers try to comprehensively define all relevant terms at the beginning of studies and to use accepted definitions found in the literature. If it begins with qualitative data collection, then the terms may emerge during the research, and they are defined in the findings or results section of the final report.
If both quantitative and qualitative data collection occurs at the same time, then the priority given to one or the other will govern the approach for definitions. However, in all mixed methods studies, there are terms that may be unfamiliar to readers—for example, the definition of a mixed methods study itself, in a procedural discussion see Chapter Also, clarify terms related to the strategy of inquiry used, such as concurrent or sequential, and the specific name for a strategy e.
No one approach governs how one defines the terms in a study, but several suggestions follow see also Locke et al. In the introduction, for example, a term may require a definition to help the reader understand the research problem and questions or hypotheses in the study.
Operational definitions are written in specific language rather than abstract, conceptual definitions. Since the definition section in a dissertation provides an opportunity for the author to be specific about the terms used in the study, a preference exists for operational definitions. In this way, the terms are grounded in the literature and not invented Locke et al. It is possible that the precise definition of a term is not available in the literature and everyday language will need to be used.
In this case, provide a definition and use the term consistently throughout the plan and the study Wilkinson, A definition may describe a common language word e. It may also be paired with a limitation e. It may establish a criterion e. In this way, the word is assigned an invariant meaning Locke et al.
Typically, this separate section is not more than two to three pages in length. Two examples illustrate varied structures for defining terms in a research study: Example 2. The first illustrates a specific operational definition of a key term and the second the procedural definition of a key term. These definitions were included in a section on independent variables: Kinship Relationship to the Grandchild Kinship relationship to the grandchild refers to whether the grandparents are maternal grandparents or paternal grandparents.
Previous research e. Example 2. VanHorn-Grassmeyer studied how new professionals in student affairs in colleges and universities engage in reflection— either individually or collaboratively. She both surveyed the new professionals and conducted in- depth interviews with them. Because she studied individual and collaborative reflection among student affairs professionals, she provided detailed definitions of these terms in the beginning of the study.
I illustrate two of her terms next. Student Affairs Professional A professional has been described in many ways. A student affairs professional has exhibited such traits in service to students in a higher education environment, in any one of a number of functions which support academic and co-curricular success. In order to address this problem, I have developed a model that provides parameters around the literature review, especially as it might be designed for a quantitative or mixed methods study that employs a standard literature review section.
For a qualitative study, the literature review might explore aspects of the central phenomenon being addressed and divide it into topical areas. But the literature review for a qualitative study, as discussed earlier, can be placed in a proposal in several ways e. For a quantitative study or the quantitative strand of a mixed methods study, write a review of the literature that contains sections about the literature related to major independent variables, major dependent variables, and studies that relate the independent and dependent variables more on variables in Chapter 3.
This approach seems appropriate for dissertations and for conceptualizing the literature to be introduced in a journal article. Consider a literature review to be composed of five components: a an introduction, b Topic 1 about the independent variable , c Topic 2 about the dependent variable , d Topic 3, studies that address both the independent and dependent variables , and e a summary.
Here is more detail about each section: 1. Introduce the review by telling the reader about the sections included in it. This passage is a statement about the organization of the section. Review Topic 1, which addresses the scholarly literature about the independent variable or variables. With several independent variables, consider subsections or focus on the single most important variable. Remember to address only the literature about the independent variable; keep the literature about the independent and dependent variables separate in this model.
Review Topic 2, which incorporates the scholarly literature about the dependent variable or variables. With multiple dependent variables, write subsections about each variable or focus on a single important one. Review Topic 3, which includes the scholarly literature that relates the independent variable s to the dependent variable s.
Here we are at the crux of the proposed study. Thus, this section should be relatively short and contain studies that are extremely close in topic to the proposed study. Perhaps nothing has been written on the topic. Construct a section that is as close as possible to the topic or review studies that address the topic at a more general level. Provide a summary that highlights the most important studies, captures major themes, suggests why more research is needed on the topic, and advances how the proposed study will fill this need.
This model focuses the literature review, relates it closely to the variables in the research questions and hypotheses, and sufficiently narrows the study.
It becomes a logical point of departure for the research questions and the method section. SUMMARY Before searching the literature, identify your topic, using such strategies as drafting a brief title or stating a central research question.
Also consider whether this topic can and should be researched by reviewing whether there is access to participants and resources and whether the topic will add to the literature, be of interest to others, and be consistent with personal goals. Researchers use the scholarly literature in a study to present results of similar studies, to relate the present study to an ongoing dialogue in the literature, and to provide a framework for comparing results of a study with other studies.
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